文法講座十九:「包含;組成」consist of /
compose / contain / comprise / constitute / include
consist
of / compose / contain / comprise / constitute / include 這幾個動詞的意思都是「包含;組成」,但確切用法總令人昏頭轉向,接下來以「主動」和「被動」用法為主軸,一一加以說明。
1.
主動語態:A 由 B 組成。
A [大團體] |
consist of |
B [小團體] |
A [大團體] |
comprise |
B [小團體] |
A [大團體] |
contain |
B [小團體] |
A [大團體] |
include |
B [小團體] |
B [小團體] |
compose |
A [大團體] |
B [小團體] |
constitute |
A [大團體] |
2.
被動語態:A 由 B 組成。
A [大團體] |
be made up of |
B [小團體] |
A [大團體] |
be composed
of |
B [小團體] |
“
consist of” 和 “comprise” 沒有被動式。
■
例句:這本小說由10個章節組成。
The novel consists of ten
chapters.
The novel comprises ten
chapters.
The novel contains ten chapters.
The novel includes ten chapters.
Ten chapters compose the
novel.
Ten chapters constitute the
novel.
The novel is made up of ten
chapters.
The novel is composed of ten
chapters.
■
請選出正確的句子:
A. The prize consists a cheque for NT$100, 000, a medal and a certificate.
B. The ad made up of photos of many political leaders kissing draws lots of
attention.
C. The team is consisted of three Chinese and three Japanese.
D. These twelve women are believed to comprise the jury.
解答:B
A 選項,句子結構分析如下:
獎品包括一張十萬元支票、ㄧ個獎牌和ㄧ張證書。
The prize consists a
cheque for NT$100, 000, a medal and a certificate.
[大團體]
[小團體]
句中可用的主動寫法有:
大團體 consist of / comprise / contain / include 小團體
句中可用的被動寫法有:
大團體 is made up of / is composed of 小團體
綜合以上分析可知,需將句中 “consists” 改成 “
consists of”。
B 選項,句子結構分析如下:
這個由許多著名政治領袖親吻的照片拼貼組合而成的廣告,引來軒然大波。
The ad made up
of photos of many political leaders kissing draws lots of attention.
[主詞] [形容詞]
[動詞]
剖析句子演進過程:
[兩個句子時]
The ad is made up of photos of many political leaders kissing.
[大團體]
[小團體]
The ad draws lots of attention.
[以關係代名詞將兩句併成ㄧ句]
The ad which is made up of
photos of many political leaders kissing draws lots of attention.
= The ad which consists of
photos of many political leaders kissing draws lots of attention.
[去掉關係代名詞,改成以 Ving 或 p.p. 分詞當形容詞]
從句中「被動式」is made up of 可知,去掉關係代名詞後,應用 p.p. 分詞當形容詞。從句中「主動語態」consists of 可知,去掉關係代名詞後,應用 Ving 分詞當形容詞。
The ad made up of photos of
many political leaders kissing draws lots of attention.
= The ad consisting of photos of
many political leaders kissing draws lots of attention.
C 選項,句子結構分析如下:
The team is consisted of three Chinese and three Japanese.
[大團體]
[小團體]
consisted
of 沒有被動式。consist of 的用法如下:
大團體 consist of 小團體
所以 C 選項句子寫法應改成:
The team consists of three Chinese and three Japanese.
= The team is made up of three Chinese and three Japanese.
= Three Chinese and three Japanese constitute the team.
D 選項,句子結構分析如下:
據說陪審團是由這 12 個女人組成。
These twelve women are believed to comprise the jury.
[小團體]
[大團體]
comprise
的用法如下:
大團體 comprise 小團體
所以 D 選項句子寫法應改成:
The jury is believed to comprise these twelve women.
= These twelve women are
believed to compose the jury.
文法講座二十:連接詞和介係詞「雖然」
連接詞「雖然、但是、儘管」可用來連接兩個句子,並在語意上做個轉折。 while / though / although / whereas 意指「雖然」;but / whereas 意指「但是」。
介係詞「雖然、但是、儘管」後只能搭配「名詞」。
1.
介係詞及連接詞「雖然、但是、儘管」用法如下:
[連接詞] but / while / although
/ though / whereas + S + V
[連接詞] in spite of the fact that + S + V / despite the
fact that + S + V / for all that + S + V
[介係詞] in spite of N / despite N (可參考:文法講座十五)
[介係詞] with all N / for all N
2.
使用時應注意以下三點:
·
「雖然、但是、儘管」連接詞不可聯用,如:有了 although,就不能有 but。且連接詞 although / though / while / whereas 放句首時,需加逗號。
例句:雖然我數學課遲到了,但是我還是決定出席。
(X) Although
I was late for the math class, but
I decided to go anyway.
(O) Although
I was late for the math class, I
decided to go anyway.
(O) I decided to go anyway although
I was late for the math class.
(O) I was late for the math class, but
I decided to go anyway.
·
連接詞 “but” 不可放首。
(X) But I decided t go anyway, I was late for the math class.
(O) I was late for the math class, but
I decided to go anyway.
·
「雖然、但是、儘管」連接詞後須加「句子」,句子必備條件為:主詞 + 動詞。而介係詞「雖然、但是、儘管」後只能搭配「名詞」。
例句:雖然她重感冒,但是她還是去上班。
[連接詞] Though she had a bad cold, she went to
work.
[連接詞] She went to work although she had a bad cold.
[連接詞] She had a bad cold, but she went to work.
[連接詞] She went to work despite the fact that she had a bad cold.
[介係詞] She went to work in spite of a bad cold.
[介係詞] With all
her bad cold, she went to work.
[特殊句型] adj/ adv/ N + as + S1 + V1, S2 + V2 (可參考:文法講座十三)
Sick as she was, she went to work.
文法講座二十一:形容詞和副詞的原級、比較級、最高級
形容詞和副詞的功能
·
形容詞的功能如下:
1. 加強名詞。
(例) This is an interesting movie.
2. 和連綴動詞搭配。 (例) The apple tastes sweet.
·
副詞的形成方式和三個功能:
形成方式:ㄧ般而言,將形容詞字尾加上 ly 就成了副詞。(例) (形) sad (副) sadly
功能:
1. 加強形容詞。 (例)
This book is very expensive.
2. 加強動詞。 (例) Tom walks slowly.
3. 加強副詞。 (例) Tom walks very slowly.
形容詞和副詞同型的單字有:hard (辛苦努力)、late (晚;遲)、early (早)、fast (快)
注意以下兩組副詞字義上的差別:hard (辛苦努力地) 和 hardly (幾乎不);late (晚;遲) 和lately (最近地)。
形容詞和副詞的三級:原級、比較級、最高級
講解形容詞的三級前,在此先釐清所謂的短形容詞和長形容詞的區隔。只有一個母音的形容詞稱為短形容詞,而有兩個或兩個以上母音的形容詞則稱為長形容詞。再者,使用三級時,最重要的一個前提就是:只有「同類」才能相較。
例句:她的成績比我好。
(X) Her grades are better
than I.
(O)Her grades are better than mine (= my grades).
基於同類才能相較的概念, 她的成績只能和我的成績相比,而不能和我這個人相比。
·
原級
原級的涵義:A 和 B 兩個東西做比較,結果不分高下,兩個一樣,就可用原級。由於句型中的形容詞保留原來的樣子,不需做變化,因而被稱為「原」級。原級的記號為 as 形容詞 / 副詞 as。
原級公式:
1.
A 和 B一樣…:
A 動詞 as 形容詞 / 副詞 as B
例句:我妹和我一樣漂亮。
My sister is as beautiful as
I.
My
sister 為主詞,基於「同性質才能相較」的概念,as 後方應搭配I,而不是 me。
2.
A 沒像 B一樣…:
A 動詞 not as 形容詞 / 副詞 as B
否定句中的第一個 as 也可換成 so,即 not so 形 / 副 as …。
例句:我唱歌唱得沒你好。
I don't sing as well as you.
I don't sing so well as you.
·
比較級
比較級的涵義:A 和 B 兩個東西做比較,比出高下,就可用比較級。比較級的記號為 than
(比)、er 字尾、more。
比較級公式:
1.
A 比 B…:
A 動詞 短形容詞字尾加er
than B
more
+ 長形容詞 / 副詞
例句:這部車比那部車便宜。換句話說,那部車比這部車貴。
This car is cheaper than
that one.
That car is more expensive than
this one.
2.
A 是兩人中比較…的那一個:
A 動詞 the + 短形容詞字尾加er
of the two
the
more + 長形容詞 / 副詞
比較級平常前面不加定冠詞 “the”,只有當 “two”出現時才加。
例句:那部車比這部車貴。換句話說,那部車是兩部當中比較貴的那一部。
That car is more expensive than
this one.
That car is the more expensive
of the two.
3.
加強比較級時,可在比較級前加上 far、even、much、a lot,表示「A 比 B…多了」。加上 a little 表示「A 比 B…一點」。
例句:那部車比這部車貴多了。
That car is much more expensive than
this one.
·
最高級
最高級的涵義:三個或三個以上的東西做比較,比出高下,就可用最高級。最高級的記號為:總數 ≧
3、est字尾、most。
最高級公式:A 是…中最…的那一個。
A 動詞 the +
短形容詞字尾加est of the 大團體 (總數需
≧ 3)
the
most + 長形容詞 / 副詞
最高級前面一定要加定冠詞 “the”或「所有格」。
[例句] 這部車是五部車當中最貴的。它也是五部車當中跑得最快的。
This car is the most expensive of the five. It’s also the fastest of the
five.
形容詞和副詞的三級變化方式
·
短字形容詞,比較級字尾直接 + er;最高級字前 + the,字尾直接 + est。
few
這個單字裡的母音是長母音,所以不可重複字尾 w 再加 er 或 est,fewwer 及 the fewwest 都是錯誤寫法。
·
單音節,短母音加子音結尾的形容詞,比較級重複字尾 + er;最高級字前 + the,重複字尾 + est。
·
子音加 y 結尾的形容詞,比較級去掉 y + ier;最高級字前 + the,去掉 y + iest。
·
單音節,子音加 e 結尾的形容詞,比較級字尾 + r;最高級字前 + the,字尾
+ st。
·
兩個音節以上的長字形容詞,比較級字前 + more;最高級字前 + the most。
·
不規則變化的形容詞和副詞三級,重要,須特別背誦!
[例句] Allen and Jack 有的錢都比我多多了。
Allen and Jack have much more money
than I do.
由於 money 為不可數名詞,很多錢 much money,轉成比較級為 more money。將 much / a lot / far / even 加在比較級 more 前,表示「比 … 多了」。
我有的錢是三人中最少的。
I have the least money of
the three.
由於 money 為不可數名詞,很少錢 little money,轉成最高級為 the least money。
我有的錢沒像他們一樣多。我沒像他們一樣有錢。
I don't have as much money as they (do). I am not so rich as they (are).
由於 money 為不可數名詞,很多錢 much money。原級的否定可用 as 形 as 或 so 形 as。
·
副詞的原級、比較級、最高級
副詞的三級概念和上述概念相同。唯 ly 結尾的副詞,造比較級時,需在副詞前加 more,造最高級時,需在副詞前加 the most。子音加 y 結尾,去 y 加 ier 成比較級,去 y 加 iest 成最高級的概念並不適用於「副詞」。
[例句] 我爸媽開車比我小心。我是三人中開車最不小心的人。
My parents drive more carefully than
I do. I am the least careful
driver of the three.
第一句,加強動詞 drive,得用「副詞」carefully。從 than (比)可知本句為比較級。ly
結尾的副詞,造比較級時,需在副詞前加 more。第二句,加強名詞 driver,得用「形容詞」careful。從three 可知本句為最高級。「最不…」的寫法為 the least + 形容詞 / 副詞,故「最不小心」的寫法為 the least careful。
原級、比較級、最高級,三級的互換
熟悉三級的寫法後,僅以例句來說明「三級互換」的概念。
[例句] Amy 是她班上最聰明的學生。
[最高級] Amy is the smartest student in her class.
Amy班上沒有其他學生像 Amy ㄧ樣聰明。
[原級] No other student in Amy’s class is as smart as she.
= No other students in Amy’s
class are so smart as she.
由於 Amy是她班上成員之ㄧ,拿 Amy 和班上學生做比較時,為避免 Amy 自己和自己相比,所以需將 Amy 排除。「排除」時可用形容詞「其他的」(other)。No 後方可搭配單數名詞,也可搭配複數名詞,注意動詞單複數需和主詞一致。
Amy 比她班上任何一個學生還聰明。
[比較級] Amy is smarter than any other student in
her class.
這裡要用 other 將 Amy 排除。any 意指「任何一個」,所以搭配單數名詞 student。
[比較級] Amy is smarter
than all the other students in
her class.
這裡要用 other 將 Amy 排除。all 意指「3 或 3 個以上都…」,所以搭配複數名詞 students。
請比較下列兩句:
Amy 班上沒有其他學生像 Amy ㄧ樣聰明。
No other student in
Amy’s class is as smart as she.
Amy 是 Amy 班上成員之ㄧ,拿 Amy 和班上學生做比較時,為避免 Amy 自己和自己相比,所以需加上other。
我班上沒有一個學生像 Amy ㄧ樣聰明。
No student in my class is as smart
as Amy.
這裡不需加 other,因為 Amy 不在我班上,不可能出現 Amy 自己和自己相比的狀況。
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